The Indigenous World 2023: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a global subsidiary body of the UN and one of the most authoritative actors in assessing climate change.[1], [2] It comprises three working groups (WG): WGI examines the physical science of the past, present, and future climate change; WGII assesses the vulnerability of socio-ecological systems, climate change consequences and adaptation options; and WGIII focuses on climate change mitigation.[3]
Each WG assesses existing scientific, technical and quantitative socio-economic evidence following an outline defined at the beginning of the assessment cycle during a plenary with States. The outlines structure the chapters of each WG report, which include measures of confidence and probabilistic quantification of uncertainty. Each WG report is further complemented with a summary for policymakers (SPM) – a brief summary with key policy-relevant messages – and a technical summary (TS) – a more extended summary that includes technical information.
IPCC reports play a decisive role in how climate policy is defined, what issues are prioritized and what responses are made visible and promoted.[4] It is therefore crucial to understand what they say about Indigenous Peoples.
During 2021 and 2022, the three WGs released a set of reports constituting the sixth assessment cycle (AR6) of the IPCC. This chapter summarizes the content related to Indigenous Peoples in these reports, paying particular attention to Indigenous knowledge systems.[5] In the first section, we present the main messages that emerged from the IPCC findings set out in the reports. We then briefly analyse the scope and limitations of these references by taking a brief look at the structure and proceedings of the IPCC.
References to Indigenous Peoples in WGI: the physical science basis
The WGI full report includes 20 references related to Indigenous Peoples. The SPM has no references, and the TS includes only a brief reference to Indigenous knowledge.
The main message of this report is that Indigenous knowledge complements scientific evidence on climate change. The report highlights the role of oral traditions as sources of information that enrich instrumental data. Although the report accepts that Indigenous knowledge includes relevant information, it fails to promote its use along with [non-Indigenous] science – which is evidenced by its omission from most chapters. The report also suggests that Indigenous knowledge is at risk because knowledge holders are “passing away”.
References to Indigenous Peoples in WGII: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability
The WGII full report mentions Indigenous Peoples 1,130 times, including 17 references in the SPM. The TS mentions Indigenous Peoples 94 times.
All WGII chapters refer to Indigenous Peoples. Chapter 1 notes that WGII has engaged with different types of knowledge, including Indigenous knowledge, during the preparation of the report. This chapter also defines and highlights the role of Indigenous knowledge, which is defined as “the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings”.[6] Nevertheless, WGII recognizes that there is no single definition, as this will vary according to context. It also recognizes that this knowledge is crucial for addressing climate risks, avoiding the reproduction of injustices and rights violations, and promoting climate action. Furthermore, it notes that the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge in IPCC processes is supported by Article 31 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).
Although the treatment of Indigenous-related content is uneven across chapters, the main message is that Indigenous Peoples are among the groups most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The report highlights malnutrition, water scarcity, food insecurity, mental health effects, fires, livelihood losses, and rising costs, mortality and morbidity from climate-sensitive diseases, increased respiratory problems, and greater exposure to floods and droughts. Furthermore, the IPCC recognizes that Indigenous Peoples are experiencing irreparable damage to their languages, knowledge systems and livelihoods due to biodiversity loss.
For the first time, the IPCC recognizes that the vulnerability of Indigenous Peoples is produced and exacerbated by the legacy of colonialism. Colonial dynamics also mean that Indigenous Peoples are negatively affected by maladaptation practices that reinforce inequities and exposure to high risks, such as forced relocation. According to WGII, avoiding maladaptation requires rights-based approaches –including recognition, procedural and distributive justice–, participatory methodologies, the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge, and consultation and informed consent.
Due to their vulnerability and historical marginalization, WGII notes that the participation of Indigenous Peoples in climate governance is an ethical requirement. This engagement is further supported by the extensive evidence presented across the report regarding the contributions of Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge systems to adaptation. However, it recognizes that this knowledge is weakening.
Among Indigenous Peoples’ contributions, WGII highlights Indigenous knowledge that is associated with better management/conservation and biodiversity sustainability and is fundamental to risk reduction, food and water security, and more equitable, effective and durable adaptation outcomes. Indigenous Peoples' knowledge plays a fundamental role in the search for solutions because of its localized characteristics and capacity to link diverse cultures, policy frameworks, economic systems, and biodiversity management. It also promotes intergenerational and holistic approaches.
Because of these contributions, WGII indicates that collaborating with Indigenous Peoples, promoting dialogue with [non-Indigenous] sciences, and strengthening their decision-making and leadership capacities all increases the chances of sustainable adaptation and resilient climate development.
Furthermore, WGII highlights evidence demonstrating that the involvement of Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge holders in climate governance has several positive outcomes related to justice and equity. Indigenous Peoples’ engagement in decision-making allows for better addressing of historical inequity and injustices. In addition, applying Indigenous Peoples' customary and traditional justice systems enhances equity in adaptation policy processes. Such involvement and recognition demands a strengthening of self-determination, recognition of Indigenous Peoples' rights, and support for Indigenous knowledge-based adaptation.
References to Indigenous Peoples in WGIII: mitigation of climate change
The WGIII full report contains 74 references related to Indigenous Peoples, of which 12 are in the SPM. The TS has just one reference, which is to Indigenous Peoples’ lands.
This report highlights the link between equity and mitigation and recognizes the intersectional impacts of climate change. It also recognizes that Indigenous Peoples are disproportionately impacted by the burdens associated with mitigation strategies, particularly Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) projects. Carbon sequestration carries risks to conservation, food and water security, wood supply, livelihoods, land tenure and land rights of Indigenous Peoples, especially when they limit communities' access to ecosystems – as in the case of “protected areas”. WGIII also underlines the impacts of activities associated with resource extraction and renewable energy development, primarily when they are implemented on a large scale and where land tenure – which includes customary land tenure – is not secure.
WGIII goes beyond merely referring to Indigenous Peoples as vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and mitigation measures. Indeed, the report highlights the importance of Indigenous Peoples' advocacy. Indigenous movements have promoted climate justice by denouncing ongoing socio-ecological injustices, land claims, and a deeply spiritual and cultural commitment to environmental protection. Although their agency has allowed them to influence international negotiations, it has also led them to face high levels of repression and violence.
WGIII also highlights the role of Indigenous Peoples in mitigation efforts. Indigenous Peoples are crucial to land-based mitigation measures and forest governance. Concerning “protected areas”, the report notes that community forest management (CFM) leads to a less intensive use of forest resources while providing carbon benefits by protecting forest cover. Furthermore, their knowledge contributes to biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, which is intertwined with improved climate resilience, disaster preparedness, quality of life, human well-being, and sustainable development. Nevertheless, the extent to which Indigenous Peoples can contribute to mitigation depends on the degree States permit their engagement at national and sub-national levels.
Based on the evidence assessed, WGIII concludes that amplifying the voices and agency of Indigenous Peoples has positive implications for climate policy. Their narratives can enable humanity to make sense of and imagine new futures, increase critical thinking, and promote agency and new coalitions. Accordingly, WGIII calls for a climate justice approach to be applied alongside more research on the role of and collaboration with Indigenous Peoples.
Discussion
In its latest cycle, the IPCC has made considerable progress in assessing the situation and contributions of Indigenous Peoples to climate science and policy. The AR6 moves the focus from Indigenous Peoples as vulnerable towards positioning Indigenous Peoples as relevant actors. This shift reflects the growing scientific evidence of the multiple benefits of recognizing Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge as equal contributors to climate science and policy. Some progress has been made with respect to the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples as authors. However, there are still many barriers to the effective and equitable engagement and representation of Indigenous Peoples in IPCC processes, which inevitably has implications for climate policy.
The treatment and consideration of, and interaction with, Indigenous Peoples across WGs is inconsistent and, in some cases, lacks the rigour warranted for an IPCC report, especially in WGI and WGII. For example, the relationship between the impact of mitigation policies on human rights and barriers to adaptation is not evenly observed. Although WGII pays attention to the violation of Indigenous Peoples' rights, WGIII relativizes it largely by mentioning compensation in the framework of mitigation projects. The core right and principle of Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) is omitted and diluted by an erroneous reference to “veto power”.
Indigenous Peoples continue to be presented as a “civil society” group, which fails to recognize Indigenous Peoples' distinct and unique position as collective rights holders recognized by the UN. Further to this, Indigenous Peoples are presented as a largely homogenous sector. The references are often presented without acknowledging the diversity of Indigenous Peoples from the seven socio-cultural regions of the world, not to mention the vast diversity within these regions. By not taking a distinction-based approach, the reports promote a rather pan-Indigenous narrative that fails to acknowledge and respect the diversity of and distinction between Indigenous Peoples.
The IPCC also falls short of considering diversity and intersectionality among Indigenous Peoples. There are scant references to specific groups, such as Indigenous women, elders and children, who, besides being highly vulnerable, are central to the intergenerational transmission of knowledge.
Another significant shortcoming is the treatment given to Indigenous knowledge systems, which are mainly understood merely as local practices. Indigenous Peoples’ values and worldviews, which underpin these actions – and contribute to rethinking the social and cultural causes of climate change – are still not explored in depth by the IPCC. Even though WGIII recognizes the role Indigenous Peoples should play in leading transformative change, the reports lack any substance regarding how this change needs to be predicated on Indigenous perspectives, worldviews, rights, and relationships with the environment. It does not delve into the complexities and nuances of Indigenous Peoples' profound, multi-layered, and intrinsic relationships with their lands, territories and resources.
Similarly, although the IPCC acknowledges knowledge co-production processes, the assessment omits the conflicts around research that excludes Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge holders. Nor does it mention Indigenous Peoples' sovereignty over their knowledge systems. Furthermore, the AR6 reports speak primarily of integrating Indigenous Peoples' knowledge into strategies guided by non-Indigenous science rather than as a horizontal, equitable, and ethical collaboration. Such an orientation from the IPCC reflects the fact that it fails to recognize Indigenous knowledge systems as a distinct science. The root of this limitation lies in the way the reports are produced. Although the assessments present evidence that refers to Indigenous Peoples' distinct knowledge systems, they fail to ensure that Indigenous Peoples from different regions and their knowledge holders contribute equitably and horizontally to the process.
The collaboration with Indigenous authors and organizations is rather weak, and their particular contributions are not appropriately acknowledged. The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), the international representative body of the Inuit, has pioneered work within the international Indigenous movement on the equitable recognition of Indigenous knowledge within the IPCC. And yet despite gaining IPCC observer status in 2020 as the first representative organization of Indigenous Peoples,[7] the reports do not refer to this. Furthermore, Indigenous authors are represented only by the countries in which they live or work rather than by their unique peoples or socio-cultural regions. This situation could be seen as an infringement of their right to self-identification and an undermining of their collective identity.
Indigenous values, worldviews and paradigms allow us to understand the importance of and how to holistically transform society to ensure urgent, holistic, just and effective responses to the human-induced climate crisis. It is therefore hoped that, in its next assessment cycle, the IPCC will not only continue to expand its attention on Indigenous Peoples but also involve representatives from all seven socio-cultural regions directly in a permanent, equitable and differentiated manner that is consistent with their status, rights, and role. In collaboration with Indigenous Peoples, the IPCC should also explore specific approaches aimed at better assessing the impacts of climate change on the interrelated rights of Indigenous Peoples, as well as pay more attention to Indigenous Peoples' contributions on all levels.
Rosario Carmona is an anthropologist working as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Bonn. Her work focuses on climate change policy and Indigenous Peoples' rights. For the last few years, she has collaborated with the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) and the International Indigenous Peoples' Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC).
Dalee Sambo Dorough [Inuk-Alaska] serves as Senior Scholar and Special Adviser on Arctic Indigenous Peoples at the University of Alaska, Anchorage. She served as the Arctic Region representative to the Facilitative Working Group within the UNFCCC, and as the former Chair of the Inuit Circumpolar Council, and led their participation within the IPCC, UNFCCC, and related climate change fora.
Joanna Petrasek MacDonald has worked on climate change issues in the Arctic with Inuit at local, national, and international levels over the past decade. She has also worked for the UNFCCC on the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform (LCIPP). Joanna has published work on topics such as climate change and mental health, Inuit youth observations of climate change, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) process.
Tunga Bhadra Rai (This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.) belongs to the Rai Indigenous Nation of Nepal. He is an Indigenous researcher and anthropologist, currently working as the Director of the Climate Change Program of the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN). He engages in advocacy at the UNFCCC, GCF, and in other national and international fora. Mr. Rai has published articles on Indigenous Peoples.
Gideon Abraham Sanago is a Tanzanian Maasai Indigenous person, born and raised in Maasailand in Simanjiro District in northern Tanzania. He is working for Pastoralists Indigenous NGOs Forum (PINGO’s Forum) as the Climate Coordinator. He engages on UNFCCC processes and monitoring of the Green Climate Fund projects in Tanzania. He is a Co-Chair of the African Caucus on climate change and a former member of the Global Steering Committee of the International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC) representing Africa Region.
Stefan Thorsell is Climate Advisor at the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). He engages in international climate advocacy at the UNFCCC and the Green Climate Fund in collaboration with Indigenous representatives. Stefan has published on Indigenous Peoples’ rights and climate change as well as on the peace process in Colombia.
This article is part of the 37th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2023 in full here.
Notes and references
[1] Livingston, Jasmine. “Reports.” In A Critical Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by Kari De Pryck and Mike Hulme, 39-48. Cambridge University Press, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009082099.017
[2] Beck, Silke and Mahony, Martin. “The IPCC and the New Map of Science and Politics.” WIREs Climate Change 9, No. 6 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.547
[4] Corbera, Esteve, Calvet-Mir, Laura, Hughes, Hannah, and Paterson, Mathew. “Patterns of Authorship in the IPCC Working Group III Report.” Nature Climate Change 6, No. 1 (2016): 94–99, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2782
[5] This chapter builds in part on findings and recommendations from two briefing papers: https://iwgia.org/en/resources/publications/4621-iwgia-briefing-analysing-recognition-contrubutions-indigenous-peoples-ipcc-report.html and https://www.iwgia.org/en/resources/publications/4845-iwgia-briefing-analysing-a-new-paradigm-of-climate-partnership-with-indigenous-peoples-ipcc-report.html
[6] IPCC. “Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” p. 148. 2022.
[7] Van Bavel, Bianca, MacDonald, Joanna Petrasek, and Sambo Dorough, Dalee. “Indigenous Knowledge Systems.” In A Critical Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by Kari De Pryck and Mike Hulme, 116–125. Cambridge University Press, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009082099.017
Tags: Global governance
