The Indigenous World 2023: Japan
The two Indigenous Peoples of Japan, the Ainu and the Ryūkyūans (or Okinawans), live on the northernmost and southernmost islands of the country’s archipelago. The Ainu territory stretches from Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands (now both Russian territories) to the northern part of present-day Japan, including the entire island of Hokkaido. Hokkaido was unilaterally incorporated into the Japanese state in 1869. Although most Ainu still live in Hokkaido, over the second half of the 20th century, tens of thousands migrated to Japan’s urban centres for work and to escape the more prevalent discrimination on Hokkaido.
Since June 2008, the Ainu have been officially recognized as an Indigenous people of Japan. The most recent government surveys put the Ainu population in Hokkaido at 13,118 (2017) and in the rest of Japan at 210 (2011), although experts estimate the actual population to be much higher.[1]
Ryūkyūans, or Okinawans, live in the Ryūkyū Islands, which make up Japan's present-day Okinawa prefecture. They comprise several Indigenous language groups with distinct cultural traits. Japan annexed the Ryūkyū Islands into its territory and established Okinawa prefecture in 1879 but later relinquished the islands to the United States in exchange for independence after World War II. In 1972, the islands were reincorporated into the Japanese state. Some 1.45 million people live throughout Okinawa prefecture. The Japanese government does not recognize the Ryūkyūans as Indigenous Peoples.
Japan has adopted the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) – although it does not recognize the unconditional right to self-determination. It has not ratified ILO Convention 169.
Ainu
As of May 2023, four years will have passed since the enactment of the Ainu Policy Promotion Act (hereinafter APPA), which was purportedly designed to improve the Ainu situation. Yet, in terms of Ainu Indigenous rights such as self-determination, nothing has changed[2] and, during 2022, Ainu activists and their supporters called the law into question both conceptually, in terms of its premises, and functionally, in terms of its ineffectiveness to prevent discrimination against the Ainu.
The Raporo Ainu Nation litigation
In terms of questioning the premises of the law in relation to international human rights instruments such as ILO 169 and the UNDRIP, the Raporo Ainu Nation litigation[3] seeks to fundamentally call into question the history of Hokkaido. At the core of its argument is the claim that Ainu kotan were self-governing bodies (“tribes”) whose sovereignty has never been ceded through treaty or other agreements between either the Japanese State or the Prefecture of Hokkaido and the Ainu people. At the hearing on 26 May, the defendants’ (Japanese State and Prefecture of Hokkaido’s) arguments to the contrary, that the plaintiff’s claims were already covered by current Japanese law, and thereby a moot point, had almost moved the presiding judge to make a decision on the litigation. However, the local press and supporters of the plaintiffs rallied to put pressure on the judge. First, on the day before the next hearing on 1 September, journalists highlighted the case, including mention of the judge’s name, in an opinion article in the local Hokkaido Shimbun Newspaper.[4] Second, the team of lawyers for the plaintiffs submitted testimony to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in late August.[5] As a result of the submission of the statement to the ICCPR, the tone of the Recommendations to the Japanese State has become more severe, and the case remains alive, with the 10th hearing scheduled for 23 March 2023.
Incidences of hate speech
On 30 November, Sugita Mio, former Japanese Parliamentary Vice-Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications, underwent parliamentary questioning for defamatory remarks made against Ainu and Korean-Japanese activists on her personal blog, which the Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan deemed as hate speech.[6] The comments in question, which had originally been posted on Sugita’s blog during the June 2016 Geneva gathering of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, referred to Ainu and Korean-Japanese delegates dressed in traditional regalia as “shabby”, “old women engaged in cosplay” and called them the “shame of Japan”. Together with photos of the individuals, these remarks had remained accessible on Sugita’s blog for over six years, even though she had subsequently been nominated to the post of Vice-Minister.[7] One Ainu victim who vocally decried the incident in the press[8] pointed out her suffering due to the ineffectiveness of the APPA legislation in combatting discrimination, after being subjected to over 650 cases of Internet slander in just three weeks.[9]
Ainu activists and their supporters quickly joined forces with other Japanese minority groups/victims of Sugita’s comments, such as the Minority Women’s Forum,[10] to issue statements collectively denouncing Sugita, calling for a personal apology, and demanding that the Kishida administration relieve Sugita of her duties.[11] Although Sugita was effectively dismissed from her post at the end of December, the conditions by which hate speech on the part of politicians and bureaucrats is being allowed to continue under conservative Liberal Democratic Party rule is still seriously being called into question,[12] and a multi-party minority group-sponsored forum against hate speech is due to be held in Sapporo at the end of February.
Meanwhile, hate speech has also found its way into political campaigning, with one candidate from Sapporo in the July national parliamentary elections having denied the historical continuity of the Ainu before the 14th century in official election statements, claiming instead that the Yamato Japanese are the original inhabitants of the island and thus that the development of Hokkaido was therefore not an act of colonization.[13] A group of Ainu activists and their supporters issued a statement pointing out the mistaken nature of these claims and decrying the use of elections for the purposes of fomenting racial misunderstanding.[14]
Ineffectiveness of the APPA
Other challenges to Japan’s policy for and legal protection of the Ainu have taken place. A nationwide survey of Ainu residents[15] conducted by a citizens’ group revealed that, in addition to criticism of the APPA’s failure to prevent the discrimination mentioned above, over 80 % of Ainu respondents were dissatisfied with the law’s system for soliciting Ainu community opinion in the enactment of promotional initiatives. Additionally, over 70 % of these Ainu respondents were disappointed with the social impact[16] of the Upopoy National Museum and Park, with the law’s failure to protect Ainu Indigenous rights, such as salmon harvesting, with its failure to address fundamental Ainu welfare issues, and with its failure to properly account for diversity within the Ainu community.[17]
On the other hand, journalists[18] revealed that the 2nd Wing of the Japanese Air Self-Defence Forces, Chitose, had incorporated Ainu designs into its battalion logo. That the current APPA provides no protection against acts of co-optation of Ainu intellectual property by private companies is problematic in itself; under essentially settler colonial relations, whether the even more questionable immorality of the Japanese military incorporating Ainu designs comes to be criticized by the Ainu community remains to be seen.
Ryūkyūans (Okinawans)
Military expansion
In January 2022, the U.S. and Japanese governments agreed a joint document regarding the militarization of the Ryūkyū Islands in the event of an escalation of tensions around Taiwan.[19] The document was discussed at the Japan-U.S. Security Consultative Committee (2 plus 2) and included a strengthening of the Self-Defence Forces in the Nansei Islands and the joint use of facilities by Japanese and U.S. forces. It also confirmed the continuation of the construction of a new base at Henoko. While missile units were deployed to the Self-Defence Forces' base stationed on Miyako Island in 2020, it has also been decided that missile units will be deployed to Ishigaki Island in 2023, as well as to Okinawa Island and Yonaguni Island. In 2022, an electronic warfare unit was also deployed to Okinawa Island, and large-scale joint Japan-US training has been conducted as well.[20],[21],[22],[23],[24],[25],[26],[27] The islands are being converted into military fortifications[28],[29] through the deployment of the Osprey,[30],[31] and an increase in fighter aircraft.[32],[33] Protests by citizens against these moves have become increasingly frequent.[34],[35],[36]
The Land Regulation Law came into effect in September. This law restricts the use of land in the vicinity of government-designated facilities such as U.S. military and Self-Defence Forces bases, and on remote border islands, and is expected to restrict protests around bases. There are concerns that property rights, privacy rights, and freedom of expression will be violated.[37],[38]
In December 2022, after losing a lawsuit at the High Court in 2021, the prefecture lost a Supreme Court case opposing the construction of the new Henoko base in Nago City. The court’s decision thus allows the national government to proceed with the construction.[39],[40] More than 70 % of voters in the 2019 prefectural referendum opposed the construction of the base but the national government has been forcing it through.
In June, the media reported that high concentrations of PFAS (organic fluorine compounds) had been detected in drinking water sources near U.S. military bases.[41],[42] PFAS have been pinpointed as causing a potential health hazard, including an increased risk of prostate cancer, elevated cholesterol levels, pregnancy hypertension, low birth weight and bone mutations in children. Since the national government has taken no action, the prefecture conducted its own water quality investigation, and a citizens' group measured the blood PFAS levels.[43],[44],[45] High concentrations of PFAS were also detected in water tanks on the Self-Defence Forces base.[46] In November, a man who owns the land on the base applied to the Okinawa Defence Bureau, a regional bureau of the Ministry of Defence, for a soil contamination investigation but his application was rejected.[47],[48]
Meanwhile, the possibility that soil and sand containing the remains of victims of the Battle of Okinawa may be used in the construction of the new base in Henoko has raised public opposition. In 2020, an application submitted by the Defence Bureau to change the design of the new base construction in Henoko states that 70 % of the soil to be used for land reclamation will come from the southern part of Okinawa Island, which was the site of a fierce battle during the Second World War. The collection of human remains in the area has not yet been completed.
Mr. Takamatsu Gushiken, a representative of the volunteer group “Gamafuyaa”, which collects the human remains of victims of the Battle of Okinawa, has asked Okinawa Prefecture to request that the national government withdraw its plan to take the soil and sand with the remains. Nationwide, 219 local governments have submitted letters of opposition to the plan to the national government.[49],[50] Mr. Gushiken has held hunger strikes to call for a cessation in the use of such soil and sand[51] and he and others have also held public hearings to listen to the opinions of war veterans and bereaved families.[52]
Discrimination against Ryūkyūans
In January, a Ryūkyūan high school student riding a motorcycle late at night lost his eyesight when he came into contact with the baton of a police officer who was patrolling the area to watch for reckless driving. The police officer claimed that he hit the student when he put out his hand to stop the motorcycle, while the high school student claimed that he was attacked.[53],[54],[55]
The victim spread the incident on social media and, as a result, many young people rushed to the police station to which the officer is assigned to protest, throwing stones and other objects.
The police officer was a Japanese person who had been transferred from outside the prefecture under a “special secondment” programme initiated by the Japanese government as a crime prevention measure in response to the 2016 murder of a woman by a U.S. military personnel. The incident and ensuing riots sparked an outpouring of hate speech on the Internet against Ryūkyūans. Okinawa Prefecture Governor Denny Tamaki expressed his outrage at the hate speech.[56],[57],[58]
In November, the Okinawa Prefectural Police qualified the officer’s actions as “intentional”, sent the case to prosecutors, and apologized to the victim, but has not recognized it as a hate crime.[59]
During the Okinawa gubernatorial election in September, fake news and hate speech on the Internet by a member of the Osaka City Council and other individuals was rampant against Governor Denny Tamaki, a vocal opponent of the new Henoko base construction, and against Ryūkyūans.[60],[61] In October, Japanese citizen Mr. Hiroyuki Nishimura tweeted derisively about the new base construction protests and said, “Okinawans do not speak clean Japanese.”[62],[63] This kind of discrimination has long been common and erupts on occasions, such as at election time.
The movement to restore the rights of Indigenous Ryūkyūans
In April, descendants lost a lawsuit in which they were demanding that Kyoto University return human remains stolen in the 1920s and 1930s from Ryūkyūan graves by anthropologists for research purposes. The descendants are currently appealing to the Osaka High Court.[64],[65],[66] Additionally, there is an ongoing case, filed in January 2022 at the Naha District Court, that demands the disclosure of official documents related to the remains of Ryūkyūans retained by the Okinawa Prefectural Board of Education.[67],[68]
International advocacy
In July, during the session of the UN Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (EMRIP), Ryūkyūan activists reported on various issues, including the violation of their right to self-determination caused by military bases,[69],[70] issues of theft of Ryūkyūan human remains,[71] PFAS contamination, and the issue of Ryūkyūan languages in danger of extinction.[72],[73] Symposiums on Indigenous Peoples and UN activities were held this year to promote the restoration and awareness of the rights of Ryūkyūans.[74],[75] In July, the Ryūkyū Indigenous Peoples’ association, Mabui Gumi nu Kai, and other citizen groups also produced a leaflet in Japanese, English, Spanish, and Portuguese that aids an understanding the UNDRIP, for distribution to Ryūkyūans, including those living outside the prefecture and overseas.[76],[77]
The UN Human Rights Committee and the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination have recommended that the Japanese government recognize the people of Ryūkyū/Okinawa as Indigenous Peoples and guarantee their rights. In response, conservative politicians in Okinawa Prefecture have submitted petitions to municipal councils calling for the withdrawal of the UN recommendations.
In response to this, Indigenous Peoples’ rights activists have been doing sensitization work. In February, a citizens' group explained the contents of the UN recommendations to the council members at the Nishihara Town Council meeting and, as a result, the council rejected the motion for withdrawal of the recommendations.[78] On the other hand, at the Tomigusuku City Council meeting in December, a majority of its members voted for to withdraw the recommendations despite the fact that members of a citizens' group explained the meaning of the recommendations to some council members and held a public awareness campaign in front of the council building during the session.[79]
Jeff Gayman is a Professor in the School of Education and Research Faculty of Media and Communication at Hokkaido University where his research focuses on issues of empowerment of the Ainu in educational arenas. He has been engaged in support of Ainu rights advocacy for over 15 years.
Dr. Kanako Uzawa is an Ainu researcher, artist, and rights advocate. She is a member of the Association of Rera in Tokyo. She completed her PhD at the University of Tromsø – the Arctic University of Norway in 2020. Her most recent work engages with the Ainu art exhibition as a guest curator in collaboration with the University of Michigan Museum of Art in the United States. Kanako is also an editorial board member of AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples in Aotearoa New Zealand.
Ryoko Nakamura is a Ryukyuan Indigenous person. She is the co-representative of “Nirai Kanai nu Kai”, a citizens' organization that works for the repatriation of Ryukyuan human remains.
This article is part of the 37th edition of The Indigenous World, a yearly overview produced by IWGIA that serves to document and report on the developments Indigenous Peoples have experienced. Find The Indigenous World 2023 in full here.
Notes and references
[1] Population figures for Hokkaido taken from the 2017 Survey of Ainu Livelihoods conducted by the Hokkaido prefectural government in cooperation with the Ainu Association. Hokkaido Government, Environment and Lifestyle Section. “Hokkaido Ainu Survey on Livelihood Report.” 2017, https://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/ks/ass/new_jittai.html
Population figures for the rest of Japan taken from the 2011 Survey of Non-Hokkaido Ainu Livelihoods conducted by the Council for Ainu Policy Promotion. “Non-Hokkaido Ainu Survey on Livelihood Report.” 2011, https://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/ainusuishin/dai3/haifu_siryou.pdf; many with Ainu ancestry do not publicly identify as Ainu due to discrimination and stigma in Japanese society. Ainu observers estimate the actual population of those with Ainu ancestry to be between 100,000 and 300,000, with 5,000 in the greater Kanto region alone.
[2] Gayman, Jeff., Dr. Kanako Uzawa., and Fumiya Nagau. “Japan.” In The Indigenous World 2021, edited by Dwayne Mamo, pp. 232-245. Copenhagen: The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2021 https://www.iwgia.org/en/japan/4226-iw-2021-japan.html
[3] Ibid.
[4] Kaneko, Buntaro and Yuma Kakuta. “Ninpi sakeru kuni Urahoru Ainu no rekishi o. Syakegyososhou Genkokugawa ‘Seikatsu to Hokori o torimodositai.’” Hokkaido Shimbun Press, 30 August 2022, https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/723848/
[5] Raporo Ainu Nation. NGO Alternative Report Regarding the Seventh Periodic Report of the Government of Japan at the Human Rights Committee. 8 September 2022.
[6] Nakayama, Gaku. “Sugita Mio Soumu Seimukan, Kondo wa Ainu Minzoku ya Zainichi Korean e no Bujyoku de Hihan Sattou Soredemo Koutetsu wo Sinai Kishida Shushou.” Tokyo Shinbun Press, 2 December 2022, https://www.tokyo-np.co.jp/article/217363
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Negishi, Hiroko. “Sugita-shi wa Sabetsuhatsugen wo Mitomete Ainu Minzoku Kankei Dantai ga Hihan.” Hokkaido Shimbun Press, 22 December 2022, https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/779337/
[10] Minority Women’s Forum. “Sugita Mio Giin no Sabetsu Hatsugen ni kansuru Koukai Youseibun”. 3 December, 2022, https://imadr.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/letter-to-PM-Kishida.pdf
[11] Kaneko, Buntaro. “Sugita Soumu Seimukan Koutetsu wo Youkyuu. Ainu Minzoku Kankei Dantai ga Ikensho.” Hokkaido Shimbun Press, 8 December 2022, https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/772054/
[12] Itou, Keiko. “Sugita Mio Zen Soumu Seimukan Koutetsu Seiken wa Shinken ni Sabetsu Kaisho o.” Ryukyu Shinpou Press, 31 December, 2022.; See also: “Editorial: Japan vice-minister Sugita unfit to serve after series of discriminatory remarks.” Mainichi Shinbun Press, 9 December 2022, https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20221209/p2a/00m/0op/006000c
[13] Hokkaido Senkyo Kanri Iinkai (Hokkaido Elections Committee). “Senkyou Kouhou.” 25 June 2022.
[14] Citizens’ Alliance for the Examination of Ainu Policy. “Senkyo ni Magirekonda Heito Supichi o Hinan Simasu” 17 July 2022, https://ainupolicy.jimdofree.com/%E5%B8%82%E6%B0%91%E4%BC%9A%E8%AD%B0%E3%81%AE%E6%8F%90%E6%A1%88-%E5%A3%B0%E6%98%8E/%E9%81%B8%E6%8C%99%E3%81%AB%E7%B4%9B%E3%82%8C%E8%BE%BC%E3%82%93%E3%81%A0%E3%83%98%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88%E3%82%B9%E3%83%94%E3%83%BC%E3%83%81%E3%82%92%E9%9D%9E%E9%9B%A3%E3%81%97%E3%81%BE%E3%81%99/
[15] The survey, released in March, 2022 was distributed to 80 Ainu individuals representing over 60 organizations, and responded to by 38 Ainu individuals representing 23 Ainu organizations, including branches of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido.
[16] In other words, that the creation of the museum had done nothing to improve their Indigenous human rights, and that the facilities and exhibitions averted attention from the history of Ainu suffering undergone during the colonization of Ainu lands.
[17] Citizens’ Alliance for the Examination of Ainu Policy. Ainu “sisaku suishin hou” kaisei ni mukete no anketo chousa houkokusho. Sapporo: Self-Published. 2022.
[18] Butai danketsu mezashi Shin maaku settei. Chitose Kuuji DaiNi Koukuudan. Hokkaido Shimbun Press, 8 December 2023, https://www.hokkaido-np.co.jp/article/772359
[19] Ryukyu Shimpo, “[Deep Dive] Clarification of Military Base in Nansei Islands. Okinawa Prefecture Reacts to Growing Tension, Japan-U.S. 2 Plus 2.” 8 January 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1451180.html
[20] “Deployment of Missile Unit to Miyako Island.” QAB (Ryukyu Asahi Broadcasting Corporation) News, April 7 2020, https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20200407124812.html
[21] “Surface-to-ship missiles to be deployed to Katsuren's Ground Self-Defense Force sub-camp for the first time on Okinawa's main island. First Deployment of Surface-to-Ship Missile Unit to Okinawa Island.” Okinawa Times, 21 August 2021, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/807921
[22] “Deployment of missile units to Yonaguni Island planned.” Asahi Shimbun, 27 December 2022, https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASQDW6KK0QDWUTFK027.html
[23] “Self-Defense Forces to Deploy 'Electronic Warfare Unit' in Okinawa.” Okinawa Times, 29 March 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/933636
[24] “Japan-U.S. Joint Integrated Exercise in Okinawa from tomorrow in anticipation of contingency.” Okinawa Times, 9 November 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1054244
[25] “Self-Defense Force vehicles and personnel to be removed from Okinawa, out of prefectural area from Nakagusuku Bay Port, Japan-U.S. Joint Exercise: Civic groups hold protest rally.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 21 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1619438.html
[26] “Fighting vehicles on public roads in Yonaguni…from Okinawa, governor ‘regrets,’ town mayor ‘needs’.” Asahi Shimbun, 19 November 2022, https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASQCL5SYHQCLDIFI009.html
[27] “Self-Defense Forces personnel stopped this newspaper's cameraman from filming, saying, 'Let me also see you erase the data'.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 12 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1614793.html
[28] “We cannot allow the premise of war,' citizens' group protests against evacuation shelters in Sakishima Islands.” Okinawa Times, 21 September 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1028355
[29] “Historic Shift to Possessing Counterattack Capability: Three Security Documents, Long-Range Missile Deployment.” Okinawa Times, 16 December 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1074621
[30] “Osprey takes off from Naha Military Port, Prefecture and Naha City protest.” RBC, 14 November 2022, https://newsdig.tbs.co.jp/articles/rbc/203561?display=1
[31] “Ten serious accidents during flight... Ten years after the Osprey deployment in Futenma, concerns about their safety have not been dispelled.” Okinawa Times, 1 October 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1033895
[32] “U.S. military's Futenma airfield sees the highest number of takeoffs and landings, 3,446 times, by foreign aircraft, 33% increase in comparison with last year, 23% increase in late-night and early-morning flights.” Okinawa Times, 5 May 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/952959
[33] “Four F-22 fighter jets fly to Kadena, concerns over increase in noise due to retirement of F-15s.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 5 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1611026.html
[34] “No More Battle of Okinawa: Nuchi du Takara no Kai” http://nomore-okinawasen.org
[35] “'Don't let Okinawa become a battlefield' Citizens hold protest rally in Naha against Japan-U.S. Joint Exercise in Okinawa.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 15 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1616267.html
[36] “To stop the deployment of missiles in Uruma City.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 29 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1623776.html
[37] “Editorial: Land Regulation Law Fully Enforced, don't allow evil law that has no ground.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 19 September 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/editorial/entry-1586314.html
[38] “Study meeting among lawyers and others about the dangers of the Land Use Regulation Law.” Okinawa Times, 24 July 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/996638
[39] “Lawsuit over withdrawal of Henoko landfill approval lost at Supreme Court; Okinawa Prefecture's appeal rejected.” Okinawa Times, 8 December 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1070354
[40] Okinawa Prefecture, “Update on Henoko New Base Construction Issue.” https://www.pref.okinawa.jp/site/chijiko/henoko/latest.html
[41] “PFAS 38 times higher than national standard at 7 points around Kadena Air Base.” Okinawa Times, 4 June 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/969847
[42] “Up to 292 nanograms of PFAS in underground water sources.” Okinawa Times, 5 March 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/920702
[43] “High concentrations of organic fluorine compounds, drilling around U.S. military's Futenma Air Station, Okinawa Prefecture, to identify source of contamination.” Okinawa Times, 2 February 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/904120
[44] “PFAS pollution: Demand for on-site investigation of U.S. military base to the state by Okinawa Citizens' Liaison Group in Okinawa Prefecture.” Okinawa Times, 26 April 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/948892
[45] OTV (Okinawa Television) website OKITIVE. “PFAS blood concentration test shows 'PFAS blood level test finds PFOS three times higher than the national average'.” https://www.otv.co.jp/okitive/article/29949/
[46] “PFAS Detection 80,000 Times Higher than Guideline Value at Naha Base of Maritime Self-Defense Force.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 1 June 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1526362.html
[47] “A man who owns land within the Air Self-Defense Force's Naha base seeks entry to the land, saying he wants to pass on uncontaminated land to his descendants, planning to survey at his own expense over PFOS contamination.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 14 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1615449.html
[48] “Defense Bureau refuses entry of landowners without showing legal grounds, for PFAS survey at Air Self-Defense Forces Naha base.” Okinawa Times, 15 December 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1073680
[49] “[Editorial] Using the sand and soil from the site of a fierce battle is an unforgivable act from a humanitarian standpoint.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 22 October 2020, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/editorial/entry-1211716.html
[50] “Mr. Gushiken calls for withdrawal of collection of sand and soil that contains human remains in southern part of Okinawa, pointing out it as a 'big mistake,' and also proposing that the governor send a message to the United Nations.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 11 August 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1564932.html
[51] “Don't reclaim Henoko with sand mixed with human remains. A volunteer to collect remains goes on hunger strike in front of Yasukuni Shrine”. Tokyo Shimbun, 15 August 2022, https://www.tokyo-np.co.jp/article/196109
[52] QAB (Ryukyu Asahi Broadcasting Corporation). “Gamafuyaa: Meeting Held to Hear from War Victims' Families.” News 'Catch', 29 November 2022, https://www.qab.co.jp/news/20221129158355.html
[53] OTV (Okinawa Television). “High School Student Blinded in Contact with Police Officer' Eating. Two Different Perceptions.” 11 February 2022, https://www.fnn.jp/articles/-/312103/
[54] “My friends were beaten up by police. More than 300 youths stormed the police station and caused a commotion.” Okinawa Times, 28 January 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/901815
[55] “High school students seriously injured. Okinawa Police Department officers have been 'specially seconded' from outside the prefecture for the past two years.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 15 February 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1470832.html
[56] “'Please don't make me suffer': Seriously injured high school student criticized on the Internet, one week has passed since the riot at the Okinawa police station.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 3 February 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1464480.html
[57] “'Extremely unforgivable,' says Okinawa Governor Tamaki after high school student loses sight in contact with police officer, considering curbing Okinawan hate on the Internet.” Okinawa Times, 4 February 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/905620
[58] “Resolute NO to Discrimination against Okinawa: Don't Blur it with the Word 'Prefectural Citizens'.” Okinawa Times, 9 December 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1070678
[59] “High School Student Blinded by Police Baton, the Officer sent to the prosecutors, with Okinawa Prefectural Police Opinion Calling for Prosecution: Judged Series of Actions as Intentional, Apologies to Victims”. Ryukyu Shimpo, 3 November 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1609836.html
[60] “'Candidate Denny wants to turn Okinawa into China's vassal state', 'Okinawa Will Be Ethnically Cleansed', accused Osaka City Councilor of her Tweets.” Okinawa Times, 6 September 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1019508
[61] “'Idiot' and 'chose to be a vassal state of China'... 'Hate against Okinawa' on SNS one after another concerning results of the gubernatorial election, including false and threatening contents.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 14 September 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1583599.html
[62] “Hiroyuki's comment on 'sit-in' does not touch the essence, promoting hate.” Okinawa Times, 13 October 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1039845
[63] “Hiroyuki's Comment, 'Okinawans Can't Speak Grammatically,' over 'Japanese language' of Okinawans.” Okinawa Times, 12 October 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1039253
[64] “Kyoto District Court rules against return of Ryukyuan remains collected by Kyoto University, lost by residents”. Kyoto Shimbun, 21 April 2022, https://www.kyoto-np.co.jp/articles/-/775729
[65] “Editorial [Not Ruling for Return of Ryukyuan remains] It goes against the world's trend.” Okinawa Times, 23 April 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/947367
[66] “Lawsuit over removal of Ryukyu remains: Plaintiffs appeal for return from the viewpoint of international human rights law. Osaka High Court hears oral arguments on appeal.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 4 December 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1626515.html
[67] “Lawsuit over blacking out of documents on remains, prefectural side takes a contentious stance. Oral Arguments at Naha District Court.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 18 June 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1535284.html
[68] Public lawsuit website 'CALL4'. “For return of remains of Ryukyuan ancestors”. https://www.call4.jp/search.php?type=action&run=true&items_id_PAL[]=match+comp&items_id=I0000076
[69] “'It's an international humanitarian issue': Appeal for withdrawal of the use of soil with remains for new base construction, by Mr. Gushiken, a representative of Gamafuyaa, at a U.N. event.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 7 July 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1545337.html
[70] “'Bases Infringe on Right to Self-Determination,' Mr. Gushiken from Gamafuyaa Appeals at UN.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 6 July 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1544808.html
[71] “'Will never give up on return,' Bones taken from Okinawa grave by scholar: Ryukoku University Professor Matsushima Explains at UN.” Okinawa Times, 6 July 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/986686
[72] “Ryukyuan languages 'in danger of extinction,' appeal at UN. Ms Oyakawa, 'Okinawa faces double colonialism'.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 8 July 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1545881.html
[73] “'Concerned about long-term health damages of PFAS' caused by U.S. military bases: Appeal at the UN, The Association of Comprehensive Studies for Independence of the Lew Chewans.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 7 July 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1545333.html
[74] “Okinawa's Current Situation 'Colony,' Indigenous People's Network Matsushima stressed.” Okinawa Times, 24 February 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/915291
[75] “Activities at the United Nations, reports by The Association of Comprehensive Studies for Independence of the Lew Chewans.” Okinawa Times, 16 July 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/992521
[76] “Indigenous peoples' rights: Document for explanation completed, Mabui Gumi nu Kai and others.” Okinawa Times, 13 July 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/990594
[77] "Introducing Indigenous Peoples' Rights: Two Groups Distributing Translated Versions." Okinawa Times, 31 October 2022, https://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/articles/-/1049307
[78] “'Okinawan people are Indigenous people': Nishihara Town Council rejects the petition to withdraw UN recommendations.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 28 March 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1492526.html
[79] “Tomigusuku City Council adopts the petition to retreat 'Indigenous peoples,' with majority votes.” Ryukyu Shimpo, 23 December 2022, https://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/entry-1636905.html
Tags: Global governance
